Single Phase Transformer

Transformer BEE2123 ELECTRICAL MACHINES Mohd Rusllim Bin Mohamed Ext: 2080 A1-E10-C09 [email  protected] edu. my  © MRM 05 Learning Outcomes ? At the end of the lecture, student should to: ? Understand the principle and the nature of static machines of transformer. Perform an analysis on transformers which their principles are basic to the understanding of electrical machines. ?  © MRM 05 Introduction ? ? ? ? A transformer is a static machines. The word „transformer? comes form the word „transform?.Transformer is not an energy conversion device, but is a device that changes AC electrical power at one voltage level into AC electrical power at another voltage level through the action of magnetic field, without a change in frequency. It can be either to step-up or step down. Transmission System TX1 TX1 Generation Station 33/13. 5kV 13. 5/6. 6kV Distributions TX1 TX1  © MRM 05 6. 6kV/415V Consumer Transformer Construction ? Two types of iron-core construction: a) b) C ore – type construction Shell – type construction ? Core – type construction  © MRM 05 Transformer Construction ? Shell – type construction MRM 05 Ideal Transformer ? An ideal transformer is a transformer which has no loses, i. e. it? s winding has no ohmic resistance, no magnetic leakage, and therefore no I2 R and core loses. ? However, it is impossible to realize such a transformer in practice. ? Yet, the approximate characteristic of ideal transformer will be used in characterized the practical transformer. N1 : N2 I1 V1 E1 E2 I2 V2 V1 – Primary Voltage V2 – Secondary Voltage E1 – Primary induced Voltage E2 – secondary induced Voltage N1:N2 – Transformer ratio  © MRM 05 Transformer Equation ? Faraday? s Law states that, ?If the flux passes through a coil of wire, a voltage will be induced in the turns of wire. This voltage is directly proportional to the rate of change in the flux with respect of time. Vind ? Emf ind d? (t ) dt Lenz? s Law If we have N turns of wire, Vind ? Emf ind d? (t ) ? ?N dt  © MRM 05 Transformer Equation ? For an ac sources, ? Let V(t) = Vm sin? t i(t) = im sin? t Since the flux is a sinusoidal function; ?(t ) ? ? m sin ? t Then: Therefore: d? m sin ? t Vind ? Emf ind ? ? N dt ? ? N m cos ? t Thus: Vind ? Emfind (max) ? N m ? 2? fN? m N m 2? fN? m ? ? ? 4. 44 fN? m 2 2  © MRM 05 Emf ind ( rms) Transformer Equation For an ideal transformer E1 4. 44 fN1? m †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (i) ? In the equilibrium condition, both the input power will be equaled to the output power, and this condition is said to ideal condition of a transformer. E2 4. 44 fN 2? m Input power ? output power V1 I1 cos ? ? V2 I 2 cos ? ? V1 I 2 ? V2 I1 ? From the ideal transformer circuit, note that, E1 ? V1 and E2 ? V2 ? Hence, substitute in (i)  © MRM 05 Transformer Equation Therefore, E1 N1 I 2 ? ? ? a E2 N 2 I1 Where, „a? is the Voltage Transformation Ratio ; which will determine whether the transformer is going to be step-up or step-down For a >1 For a E2 E1 < E2  © MRM 05Step-down Step-up Transformer Rating ? Transformer rating is normally written in terms of Apparent Power. ? Apparent power is actually the product of its rated current and rated voltage. VA ? V1I1 ? V2 I 2 ? Where, ? I1 and I2 = rated current on primary and secondary winding. ? V1 and V2 = rated voltage on primary and secondary winding. ? Rated currents are actually the full load currents in transformer  © MRM 05 Example 1. 1. 5kVA single phase transformer has rated voltage of 144/240 V. Finds its full load current. Solution 1500 I1FL ? ? 10. 45 A 144 1500 I 2 FL ? ? 6A 240  © MRM 05 Example 2.A single phase transformer has 400 primary and 1000 secondary turns. The net cross-sectional area of the core is 60m2. If the primary winding is connected to a 50Hz supply at 520V, calculate: a) The induced voltage in the secondary winding b) The peak value of flux densit y in the core Solution N1=400 V1=520V A=60m2 N2=1000 V2=?  © MRM 05 Example 2 (Cont) a) Know that, N1 V1 a? ? N 2 V2 400 520 ? 1000 V2 V2 ? 1300V b) Emf, E ? 4. 44 fN ? m ? 4. 44 fN ? Bm ? A? known, E1 ? 520V , E2 ? 1300V E ? 4. 44 fN ? Bm ? A? 520 ? 4. 44(50)(400)( Bm )(60) Bm ? 0. 976 x10 ? 5Wb / m 2 (T )  © MRM 05 Example 3.A 25kVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary winding. The primary is connected to 3000V, 50Hz supply. Find: Full load primary and secondary current b) The induced voltage in the secondary winding c) The maximum flux in the core Solution VA = 25kVA N1=500 V1=3000V N2=50 V2=? a)  © MRM 05 Example 3 (Cont) a) Know that, VA ? V ? I I1FL VA 25 ? 103 ? ? ? 8. 33 A V1 3000 b) Induced voltage, N1 I 2 a? ? N 2 I1 ? 8. 33 ? I 2 ? 500? ? ? 83. 3 A ? 50 ? I1 ? 8. 33 ? E2 ? E1 ? 3000? ? ? 300V I2 ? 83. 3 ? c) Max flux E ? 4. 44 fN ? 300 ? 4. 44(50)(50)? ? ? 27mWb  © MRM 05Practical Transformer (Equivalent Circuit) I1 R1 X1 Ic V1 RC Io I1 ’ Im Load Xm E1 E2 V2 N1: N2 I2 R2 X2 V1 = primary supply voltage V2 = 2nd terminal (load) voltage E1 = primary winding voltage E2 = 2nd winding voltage I1 = primary supply current I2 = 2nd winding current I1? = primary winding current Io = no load current Ic = core current Im = magnetism current R1= primary winding resistance R2= 2nd winding resistance X1= primary winding leakage reactance X2= 2nd winding leakage reactance Rc  © MRM 05= core resistance Xm= magnetism reactance Single Phase Transformer (Referred to Primary) ? Actual MethodI1 R1 X1 Ic Io I2 ’ Im Load RC Xm E1 E2 V2 R2’ X2’ N1: N2 I2 V1 ? N1 ? R2 ‘ ? ? ? N ? R2 ? ? 2? ? N1 ? X2'? ? ? N ? X2 ? ? 2? 2 2 OR R2 ‘ ? a R2 2 ?N ? ‘ E1 ? V2 ? ? 1 ? V2 ? N ? ? 2? I I2 ‘ ? 2 a  © MRM 05 OR V2 ‘ ? aV2 OR X 2 ‘ ? a2 X 2 Single Phase Transformer (Referred to Primary) ? Approximate Method I1 R1 X1 R2’ X2’ Ic V1 RC Io I2 ’ Im Load Xm E1 E2 N1: N2 I2 V2 ?N ? R2 ‘ ? ? 1 ? R2 ? N ? ? 2? ?N ? X2'? ? 1 ? X2 ? N ? ? 2? 2 2 OR R2 ‘ ? a R2 2 OR X 2 ‘ ? a2 X 2 ?N ? ‘ E1 ? V2 ? ? 1 ? V2 ? N ? ? 2? I I2 ‘ ? 2 a  © MRM 05 OR V2 ‘ ? aV2 Single Phase Transformer (Referred to Primary) ? Approximate Method I1 R01 X01V1 aV2 In some application, the excitation branch has a small current compared to load current, thus it may be neglected without causing serious error. ?N ? R2 ‘ ? ? 1 ? R2 ? N ? ? 2? ?N ? X2'? ? 1 ? X2 ? N ? ? 2? 2 2 OR R2 ‘ ? a R2 2 ?N ? ‘ V2 ? ? 1 ? V2 ? N ? ? 2? OR V2 ‘ ? aV2 OR X 2 ‘ ? a2 X 2 R01 ? R1 ? R2 ‘  © MRM 05 X 01 ? X 1 ? X 2 ‘ Single Phase Transformer (Referred to Secondary) ? Actual Method I1 ’ R1’ X1’ Ic Io I2 Im Xm’ R2 X2 V1 a RC’ V2 ?N ? R1 R1 ‘ ? ? 2 ? R1 OR R1 ‘ ? 2 ? N ? a ? 1? ?N ? X 1 ‘ ? ? 2 ? X 1 OR ? N ? ? 1? 2 2 ?N ? V V1 ‘ ? ? 2 ? V1 OR V1 ‘ ? 1 ? N ? a ? 1?  © MRM 05 X1' ? X1 a2Single Phase Transformer (Referred to Secondary) ? Approximate Method I1 ’ R02 X02 Neglect the excitation branch V1 a V2 R02 ? R1 ‘? R2 X 02 ? X 1 ‘? X 2 ?N ? R1 R1 ‘ ? ? 2 ? R1 OR R1 ‘ ? 2 ? N ? a ? 1? ?N ? X 1 ‘ ? ? 2 ? X 1 OR ? N ? ? 1? 2 2 ? N2 ? V ? ?V1 OR V1 ‘ ? 1 V1 ‘ ? ? N1 ? a ? ? I1 ‘ ? aI1  © MRM 05 X1' ? X1 a2 Example 4. For the parameters obtained from the test of 20kVA 2600/245 V single phase transformer, refer all the parameters to the high voltage side if all the parameters are obtained at lower voltage side side. Rc = 3. 3? , Xm =j1. 5? , R2 = 7. 5? , X2 = j12. 4? Solution Given Rc = 3. 3? , Xm =j1. 5? , R2 = 7. ? , X2 = j12. 4?  © MRM 05 Example 4 (Cont) i) Refer to H. V side (primary) E1 V1 2600 a? ? ? ? 10. 61 E2 V2 245 R2 ‘ ? a 2 R2 2 V2 ‘ ? aV2 To refer parameters to primary, Use R2? =(10. 61)2 (7. 5) = 844. 65? , X2? =j(10. 61)2 (12. 4) = 1. 396k? Rc? and X c? becoz parameters were read from secondary side Rc? =(10. 61)2 (3. 3) = 371. 6? , Xm? =j(10. 61)2 (1. 5) = j168. 9 ?  © MRM 05 2nd I I2 ‘ ? 2 X2'? a X2 a Example (What if.. ) 4. For the parameters obtained from the test of 20kVA 245/2600 V single phase transformer, refer all the parameters to the high voltage side if all the parameters are obtained at lower voltage side side.Rc = 3. 3? , Xm =j1. 5? , R2 = 7. 5? , X2 = j12. 4? Solution Given Rc = 3. 3? , Xm =j1. 5? , R2 = 7. 5? , X2 = j12. 4?  © MRM 05 Power Factor ? Power factor = angle between Current and Voltage, cos ? V I ? I ? = -ve Lagging ? V I V ? = +ve Leading ?=1 unity  © MRM 05 Example 5. A 10 kVA single phase transformer 2000/440V has primary resistance and reactance of 5. 5? and 12? respectively, while the resistance and reactance of secondary winding is 0. 2? and 0. 45 ? respectively. Calculate: i. ii. The parameter referred to high voltage side and draw the equivalent circuit The approximate value of seco ndary voltage at full load of 0. lagging power factor, when primary supply is 2000V.  © MRM 05 Example 5 (Cont) Solution R1=5. 5 ? , X1=j12 ? R2=0. 2 ? , X2=j0. 45 ? i) Refer to H. V side (primary) E V 2000 a? 1 ? 1 ? ? 4. 55 E2 V2 440 I1 R01 9. 64 V1 X01 21. 32 aV2 R2? =(4. 55)2 (0. 2) = 4. 14? , X2? =j(4. 55)20. 45 = j9. 32 ? Therefore, R01=R1+R2? =5. 5 + 4. 13 = 9. 64 ?  © MRM X01=X1+X2? =j12 + j9. 32 = j21. 3205? Example 5 (Cont) Solution ii) Secondary voltage p. f = 0. 8 Cos ? = 0. 8 ? =36. 87o 10 ? 103VA Full load, I FL ? ? 5A 2000V From eqn. cct, 1 V1? 0o ? ( R01 ? jX 01)( I1? ? ? o ) ? aV2 2000? 0o ? (9. 64 ? j 21. 32)(5? ? 36. 87 o ) ? (4. 5)V2 V2 ? 422. 6? 0. 8o  © MRM 05 Transformer Losses ? i. ii. Generally, there are two types of losses; Iron losses :- occur in core parameters Copper losses :- occur in winding resistance i. Iron Losses Piron ? Pc ? ( I c) 2 Rc ? Popen circuit ii. Copper Losses Pcopper ? Pcu ? ( I 1) 2 R1 ? ( I 2) 2 R2 ? Pshort circuit or if referr ed , Pcu ? ( I 1) 2 R01 ? ( I 2) 2 R02  © MRM 05 Poc and Psc will be discusses later in transformer test Transformer Efficiency ? To check the performance of the device, by comparing the output with respect to the input. ? The higher the efficiency, the better the system. Efficiency ,? Output Power ? 100% Input Power Pout ? ?100% Pout ? Plosses ? V2 I 2 cos ? ?100% V2 I 2 cos ? ? Pc ? Pcu ? ( fullload) ? ?(load n ) ? VA cos ? ?100% VA cos ? ? Pc ? Pcu nVA cos ? ?100% 2 nVA cos ? ? Pc ? n Pcu Where, if ? load, hence n = ? , ? load, n= ? , 90% of full load, n =0. 9 Where Pcu = Psc Pc = Poc  © MRM 05 nmax ? ? Poc VArated ? P ? ? sc ? ? ? VArated ? ? ? ? Pc VArated ? P ? ? cu ? ?VArated ? ? ? Voltage Regulation ? The measure of how well a power transformer maintains constant secondary voltage over a range of load currents is called the transformer's voltage regulation ?The purpose of voltage regulation is basically to determine the percentage of voltage drop between no lo ad and full load.  © MRM 05 Voltage Regulation ? For calculation of Voltage Regulation, terminologies may be quite confusing, hence you need always think in current, I (A) point of view â€Å"Full-load† means the point at which the transformer ? is operating at maximum permissible secondary current ? When connected to load, current being drawn, hence Voltage drop) ? ? No Load means at Rated At no load, current almost zero, so takes Voltage at rated  © MRM 05 value – think like an open circuit) Voltage Regulation Voltage Regulation can be determine based on 3 methods: a) b) c) Basic Definition Short – circuit Test Equivalent Circuit  © MRM 05 Voltage Regulation (Basic Defination) ? In this method, all parameter are being referred to primary or secondary side. ? Can be represented in either ? Down – voltage Regulation Note that: VNL ? VFL V . R ? ?100% VNL (at Rated Value) VNL ? Up – Voltage Regulation VNL ? VFL V . R ? ?100% VFL  © MRM 05 Vo ltage Regulation (Short – circuit Test) ? In this method, direct formula can be used. V . R ? V . R ? Vsc cos sc ? ? p. f ? V1 ?100% If s/c test on primary side Vsc cos c ? ? p. f ? V2 ?100% If s/c test on primary side Note that: „–? is for Lagging power factor „+? is for Leading power factor Must check that Isc must equal to IFL (I at Rated), otherwise  © MRM 05 can? t use this formula Voltage Regulation (Equivalent Circuit ) ? In this method, the parameters must be referred to primary or secondary V . R ? I1 R01 cos ? p. f ? X 01 sin ? p. f V1 I 2 R02 cos ? p. f ? X 02 sin ? p. f V2 ? 100% 100% If referred to primary side V . R ? ? If referred to secondary side Note that: „+? is for Lagging power factor „–? is for Leading power factor  © MRM 05 assume j terms ~0Comment on VR ? Purely Resistive Load ? > 3 % is considered poor VR Normally poor than Resistive Load ? Inductive Load ? ? Example of application Desired Poor VR ? ? Disc harge lighting AC arc welders  © MRM 05 Example 6. In example 5, determine the Voltage regulation by using down – voltage regulation and equivalent circuit. Question 5 A 10 kVA single phase transformer 2000/440V and V1? 0o ? ( R01 ? jX 01)( I1? ? ? o ) ? aV2 2000? 0o ? (9. 64 ? j 21. 32)(5? ? 36. 87 o ) ? (4. 55)V2 V2 ? 422. 6? 0. 8o  © MRM 05 Example Solution Down – voltage Regulation Know that, V2FL=422. 6V V2NL=440V Therefore, V .R ? VNL ? VFL ? 100% VNL 440 ? 422. 6 ? ?100% 440 ? 3. 95%  © MRM 05 Example 6 (Cont) Equivalent Circuit I1=5A R01=9. 64? X01 = 21. 32? V1=2000V, 0. 8 lagging p. f V . R ? I1 R01 cos ? p. f ? X 01 sin ? p. f V1 ? 100% 5 ? 9. 64(0. 8) ? 21. 32(0. 6)? ? ? 100% 2000 ? 5. 12%  © MRM 05 Example A short circuit test was performed at the secondary side of 10kVA, 240/100V transformer. Determine the voltage regulation at 0. 8 lagging power factor if Vsc =18V Isc =100 Psc=240W Solution Check: 7. I FL2 I FL2 VA 10000 ? ? ? 100 A V 100 ? I sc , Hence, we can use short-circuit method V . R ? Vsc cos sc ? ? p. ? V2  © MRM 05 ?100% Example 7 (Cont) V . R ? Vsc cos sc ? ? p. f ? V2 ? 100% Given p. f ? 0. 8 Hence, ? p. f ? cos ? 1 0. 8 ? 36. 87 o Know that , Psc ? Vsc I sc cos ? sc ? sc ? cos ? 1 ? ? ? Psc ? ? ? ? Vsc I sc ? 18 cos 82. 34o ? 36. 87 o V . R ? ?100% 100  © MRM 05 ? 12. 62% ? ? 240 ? ? ? 82. 34 o ? cos ? 1 ? ? (18)(100) ? ? ? ? Example 8. The following data were obtained in test on 20kVA 2400/240V, 60Hz transformer. Vsc =72V Isc =8. 33A Psc=268W Poc=170W The measuring instrument are connected in the primary side for short circuit test. Determine the voltage regulation for 0. 8 lagging p. f. use all 3 methods), full load efficiency and half load efficiency.  © MRM 05 Example 8 (Cont) V . R ? Vsc cos sc ? ? p. f ? V2 ? 100% Given p. f ? 0. 8 Hence, ? p. f ? cos ?1 0. 8 ? 36. 87 o Know that , Psc ? Vsc I sc cos ? sc ? Psc ? ? sc ? cos ? ?V I ? ? ? sc sc ? ? 268 ? ? ? 63. 4o ? cos ? 1 ? ? (72)(8. 33) ? ? ? ?1 Z sc ? Vsc 72 ? ? 8. 64? I sc 8. 33 ? Z sc ? 8. 64? 63. 4o ? 3. 86 ? j 7. 72 ? R01 ? jX 01 because connected to primary side.  © MRM 05 Example 8 (Cont) 1. Short Circuit method , V . R ? Vsc cos sc ? ? p. f ? V1 ? 100% 72 cos 63. 4o ? 36. 87 o V . R ? ?100% ? 2. 68% 2400 ? ? 2. Equivalent circuit , V .R ? I1 R01 cos ? p. f ? X 01 sin ? p. f V1 ? ? ? 100% 20000 ? 3. 86(0. 8) ? 7. 72(0. 6)? 2400 ? 100% ? 2. 68% 2400  © MRM 05 Example 8 (Cont) 3. Basic Defination , V1 ? I1Z 01 ? aV2 ? 20000 ? 2400 ? o? o 2400? 0 ? ? ? ? 36. 87 ? 8. 64? 63. 4 ? ? ? V2 ? 2400 ? ? 240 ? V2 ? 233. 58? 0. 79 o V o ? ? VNL ? VFL V . R ? ?100% VNL ? 240 ? 233. 58 ? 100% 240 ? 2. 68%  © MRM 05 Example 8 (Cont) ?( full load) (1)(20000)(0. 8) ? ?100% ? 97. 34% 2 (1)(20000)(0. 8) ? 170 ? (1) (268) (0. 5)(20000)(0. 8) ? ?100% ? 97. 12% 2 (0. 5)(20000)(0. 8) ? 170 ? (0. 5) (268) ?( half load)  © MRM 05 Measurement on Transformer ? i. ii.There are two test conducted on transformer. Open Circuit Test Shor t Circuit test ? ? ? The test is conducted to determine the parameter of the transformer. Open circuit test is conducted to determine magnetism parameter, Rc and Xm. Short circuit test is conducted to determine the copper parameter depending where the test is performed. If performed at primary, hence the parameters are R01 and ©X0105and vice-versa. MRM Open-Circuit Test ? ? Voc Ic Measurement are at low voltage side Poc ? Voc I oc cos ? oc From a given test parameters, ? ?1 ? P oc Voc ? oc ? cos ? Voc ? V I ? ? ? oc oc ? I sin? Im Ic oc oc Ioc RcXm ?oc Ioccos? oc Hence, I c ? I oc cos ? oc ? Im I m ? I oc sin ? oc Then, Rc and X m , Voc Voc Rc ? , Xm ? Ic Im Note: If the question asked parameters referred to high voltage side, the parameters (Rc and Xm) obtained need to be referred to high voltage side  © MRM 05 Short-Circuit Test ? ? Measurement are at high voltage side If the given test parameters are taken on primary side, R01 and X01 will be obtained. Or else, viceversa. R01 X01 Psc ? Vsc I sc cos ? sc ? Psc ? ? sc ? cos ? ?V I ? ? ? sc sc ? Hence, Vsc Z 01 ? sc I sc ? 1  © MRM 05 For a case referred to Primary side Z 01 ? R01 ? jX 01 Example 9.Given the test on 500kVA 2300/208V are as follows: Poc = 3800W Psc = 6200W Voc = 208V Vsc = 95V Ioc = 52. 5A Isc = 217. 4A Determine the transformer parameters and draw equivalent circuit referred to high voltage side. Also calculate appropriate value of V2 at full load, the full load efficiency, half load efficiency and voltage regulation, when power factor is 0. 866 lagging.  © MRM 05 [1392? , 517. 2? , 0. 13? , 0. 44? , 202V, 97. 74%, 97. 59%, 3. 04%] Example 9 (Cont) From Open Circuit Test, Poc ? Voc I oc cos ? oc ? 3800 ? ? ? 69. 6o ? oc ? cos ? ? (52. 5)(208) ? ? ? I c ? I oc cos ? oc ? 1 Voc Ic Iocsin? oc IocIoccos? oc ? 52. 5 cos 69. 6o ? 18. 26 A I m ? I oc sin ? oc ? 52. 5 sin 69. 6o ? 49. 2 A ?oc Im ?  © MRM 05 Example 9 (Cont) Since Voc=208V i. e. low voltage side ? all reading are taken on th e secondary side (low voltage side) Voc 208 Rc ? ? ? 11. 39? I c 18. 26 Voc 208 Xm ? ? ? 4. 23? I m 49. 21 Parameters referred to high voltage side, ? E1 ? ? 2300 ? Rc ‘ ? Rc ? ? ? 11. 39? ? ? 1392? ?E ? ? 208 ? ? 2? 2 2 ? E1 ? ? 2300 ? ? ? ? 4. 23? Xm'? Xm? ? ? 517 ? MRM 05 . 21?  © ? 208 ? ? E2 ? 2 2 Example 9 (Cont) From Short Circuit Test, First, check the Isc I FL1 VA 500 ? 103 ? ? ? 217. 4 A V1 2300 Since IFL1 =Isc , ? ll reading are actually taken on the primary side Psc ? Vsc I sc cos ? sc ? 6200 ? ? ? 72. 53o ? sc ? cos ? ? (95)(217. 4) ? ? ? ?1 ?V ? Z 01 ? ? sc sc ? I ? ? sc ? ? 95 ? o o 72. 53 ? 0. 44? 72. 53 ? 217. 4 ?  © MRM 05 ? 0. 13 ? j 0. 42? Example 9 (Cont) Equivalent circuit referred to high voltage side, R01 0. 13? X01 0. 42? V1 Rc 1392? Xm 517. 21? V2? =aV2  © MRM 05 Example 9 (Cont) For V2 at full load, neglect the magnetism parameters, R01 0. 13? X01 0. 42? v1 v2? pf ? cos ? ? 0. 866 ? ? cos ? 1 0. 866 ? 30o  © MRM 05 Example 9 (Cont) Efficie ncy,? ? ? VA cos ? ? FL ? ? ? ?100% ? VA cos ? ? Psc ? Poc ? ? ? 500 ? 103 )(0. 866) ? ? 100% (500 ? 103 )(0. 866) ? 6200 ? 3800 ? ? ? 97. 74% ? ? nVA cos ? ?1 L ? ? ? ? 100% 2 nVA cos ? ? n 2 Psc ? Poc ? ? ? ? (0. 5)(500 ? 103 )(0. 866) ? ? 100% 3 2 ? (0. 5)(500 ? 10 )(0. 866) ? (6200)(0. 5) ? 3800 ? ? 97. 59%  © MRM 05 Example 9 (Cont) Voltage Regulation, ?Vsc cos ? sc ? ? pf ? V . R ? ? ? ?100% E1 ? ? ? (95) cos? 72. 53 ? 30 ? ? 100% 2300 ? ? ? 3. 04% ? ?  © MRM 05 Test Yourself on Final Exam Q ? Following are the test result of a 12 kV A, 415 V / 240 V, 50 Hz, two winding single phase transformer: Open circuit test (reading taken on low voltage side) 240 V 4. 2 A 80 WShort circuit test (reading taken on high voltage side) 9. 8 V ? Determine: i. 28. 9 A 185 W The values of Rp. Rs. Xp, Xs, Xm and Rc, assuming an approximate equivalent circuit. ii. The efficiency of the transformer at full load and 0. 8 lagging power factor. iii. The voltage regulation at full load and 0. 8 lagging power factor.  © MRM 05 Solution i. Solution ? ? ? ? Eff = 97. 3 % ? V. R = 2. 31 % Z = 57. 14 ? Rc = 714. 3 ? Xm = 57. 31 a = 1. 73 R1 = 0. 11 ? R2 = 0. 037 ? X1 = 0. 13 ? X2 = 0. 043 ? ? Refer to Primary, ? ? ? ? ?  © MRM 05 Any Questions Test 1 – coming soon Make sure you prepared for that†¦  © MRM 05

Presidents and Their Decisions Essay

The book â€Å"Presidents and Their Decisions: Richard M. Nixon† is an assortment of essays written by many very well known social and political giants of Washington who either praised Nixon or criticized him. Nixon was a driven individual of high intelligence who emerged from humble beginnings and was willing to behave ruthlessly in order to secure power and influence. Nixon, who took office in 1969, had an instinctive bent toward foreign affairs and was a realists who believed that the United States should pursue a foreign policy closely aligned with the country’s national interests rather than one directed mainly by ideological and moral concerns, as these had contributed to a proliferation of foreign commitments, heightened Cold War tensions and created a tendency to see the world in simplistic black and white categories. In domestic affairs, inflation was President Nixon’s most persistent economic problem. Initially, he tried to cut federal expenditures, but the annual budget deficits of his administration grew to become the largest in history up to that time. In 1971 and 1973 the administration devalued the dollar in an attempt to achieve a balance of trade. Despite his well known to government controls, Nixon initiated his New Economic Policy, which included unprecedented peacetime controls on wages and prices. With the opportunity to appoint four Supreme Court justices, the President was able to redirect the court toward the strict constructionism he espoused. The book details from the outset how Nixon wanted to extricate the United States from the bloodletting of Vietnam. It ended up alternating between expanding the war with intensifying the bombing campaign and by bringing about the slow withdrawal of American troops under the aegis of â€Å"Vietnamisation†. The latter was but a veil for American defeat, and despite the signing of the Paris peace accords in 1973 South Vietnam crumbled under the weight of the communist onslaught two years later. Yet the Saigon regime had been abandoned more by a congress weary of international exertions than by the White House. The writers also go on to discuss the East West detente that was more productive. By opening the Soviet Union to Western influence, detente eroded communism’s hold on its people at home and abroad. This development would make itself felt mainly in the following decade. Arms control agreements helped to moderate the nuclear arms race and was a Cold War first. However, detente provoked particular controversy among those who held that negotiating with the Soviets was immoral and who sought with some success to impede its development. The Cold War reasserted itself with a vengeance in the late 70’s. The book discusses the diplomatic approach to Communist China in 1972 and how it was a landmark opening in modern United States diplomatic history and gave Washington more room for diplomacy in relation to Moscow. Only Nixon, with his well established anti-communist credentials, could have engineered the opening without generating a conservative outcry in the United States. Nixon, along with Kissinger, tilted towards the repressive state of Pakistan in the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971 and was driven by calculations of Cold War geopolitics rather than by the reality that the conflict was primarily a regional one. Among other things discussed, the tilt sullied the administration’s reputation and its credibility with the press. American complicity in the overthrow of the democratically elected, left-wing politician in Chile in 1973 was derived from exaggerated fears of the South Americans leader’s capacity to compromise American security interests. This also contradicted Washington’s traditional commitment to national self-determination. Nixon wanted to use foreign affairs to distract the American public from the Watergate scandal and after his resignation in 1974 he had some success in rehabilitating his reputation by presenting himself as an elder statesman. In the years following his resignation, there was much controversy stemming in part from his pardon. There was question as to whether a president could pardon one who had not been convicted, whether the pardon was granted in the spirit of healing the wounds of the scandal or of patching over. Another area of controversy discussed was the question of Nixon’s alleged profit from misconduct. This was in receiving giant sums for interviews and books. But then again wouldn’t the question of conviction come into play? The book was very interesting and gave the reader a broad perspective of the presidency of Richard M. Nixon. As well as giving the reader a more objective look at a period in American History that so many have forgotten what really happened. I found the book easy to read and would recommend this book for any layperson as well as any student interested in political science. I felt it gave a very clear picture of Richard Nixon’s presidency both attributes and faults.

Analysis of a Key Passage in One Hundred Years of Solitude Essay

The chosen passage is an extract from Gabriel Marquez’s novel One Hundred Years of Solitude. This passage was chosen because it is the final pages of the story that describe the great tragedy of the town of Macondo. At this point, the novel seems to become clear and everything that happens in between is justified. The passage describes the great prophecy of Melquiades. It reveals that all of the elements of the Buendà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½a Family’s lives were predicted down to the most trivial details. It is the exact antithesis of an existentialist novel, where the characters themselves are responsible for everything that happens to them. Marquez instead demonstrates the idea of an overall fate and destiny that lures you into its shadows and leads you down its dark trail. The ending may seem as an equivocation, but it is so much more. Marquez’s use of nature throughout the novel is ironic, because it is nature that eventually murders the town of Macondo, expunging all memories of it. Marquez’s use of a third person point of view is very essential to the novel’s understanding, because we are able to stand on the outside, and look down upon 100 years worth of time. Throughout this time, the characters are blissfully unaware of their future, living for moments alone. We as readers however, are able to decipher the cyclical writing through Marquez’s writing styles and techniques. The Buendà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½as were a huge part of the foundation of their town, Macondo. They built a civilization out of nothing, a wondrous place indeed. But little did they know that the town, along with themselves, was destined for doom. As the Buendà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½a family began to deteriorate, so did the society in which they lived. From generation to generation, the same things happened over and over again. Each new generation of the family seemed to repeat the same mistakes as their predecessors. This happened in accordance to Macondo’s deterioration until the town â€Å"†¦was already a fearful whirlwind of dust and rubble being spun about by the wrath of the biblical hurricane†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½rquez, p.416). Marquez uses this metaphor of a whirlwind to demonstrate how things kept going round and round, enclosed within a powerful force that is impossible to escape. This comes off as peculiar because when Jose Arcadio Buendà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½a died, nature showed its condolence with a shower of flowers. Nature was kind to Jose Arcadio Buendà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½a, because he did not have detrimental intentions. By the end of the novel, the story is corrupt with jealousy, hate, and lust. Therefore Nature had no sympathy for them. One such instance of the cyclical philosophy in the novel is Marquez’s usage of the Buendà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½a family tree. The confusion that is created with the repetition of names and personalities is intentionally concocted by Mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½rquez in order to illustrate the idea that identity is not important and not present in the novel. By using the same names through all six of the generations, he illustrates the Buendà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½as’ desire to stay the same and resist change. Mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½rquez’s stylistic choice makes it difficult to distinguish between characters with similar names, but this is merely to show that it simply does not matter. No matter what their name is, or which generation they are in, they’re destined for the same things. This is why most of the Jose Arcadias were tough and fighters, while most of the Aurelianos had an interest in science and art. Colonel Aureliano Buendà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½a for instance, grew tired of the war and became highly interested in poetry. This is in fact a bigger metaphor to represent the actual people of society. Mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½rquez conveys that people, and ultimately society, never learn from their mistakes. This is the sole cause of their downfall. Because Mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½rquez writes in magical realism time is essential to the story, but along with time, he also utilizes the motifs of amnesia and nostalgia. Part of the reason why things were always repeated, and people never questioned it, was because of the amnesia that swept over the people of every generation. After even the most memorable and life-changing experience of the Banana Plant Massacre, the people lost all memory that it ever even existed. Their willingness to believe what was told to them shows their lack of individuality and thought. In fact, they had to put up a sign reminding themselves that God even existed. If a person does not have any recollection of a past event, then ‘doing it again’ would seem to them, only the first time. This could explain the constant repetition that the town encounters. This would allow no margin for repent or a lesson to be learned.

Assignment 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Assignment 2 - Essay Example There are different types of e-business methods. The most famous ones are Business-to-Business (B2B), Business-to-Consumer (B2C), Mobile or m-Commerce and Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C) business. The B2B model is the most famous amongst all the e-business models (Rahulshams, 2011). Effects of E-Business on Project Management Business to Business or B2B has changed the entire project management strategies. Earlier a company has to manufacture products and sell them. They have to come up with efficient marketing plans to sell their products and a detailed project management report. But, e-business eliminated such needs completely. Websites providing B2B and B2C services like the Elance.com and Ebay.com influenced the way business was done like never before. The importance of project management got reduced greatly because of e-business. Positive effects: E-business reduced the dependability on project management saving billions of dollars spent on planning and executing a core plan. Negativ e effects: E-business paved way for any person to become a master with some software. Those who just preferred e-commerce without giving importance to core e-business strategies failed drastically leading to the burst of the dotcom bubble very soon. Huge companies like Ebay.com and Amazon succeeded mainly because they were able to integrate all core process related to their business starting from inventory to customer details and the products stock details together in a secure way using various e-business features. Small companies which failed to provide such e-infrastructure failed mainly because of information mismanagement and the inability to gain customer satisfaction. Effects of E-Business on Supply Chain Management Traditional way of doing business involved purchasing goods from suppliers, storing them in a warehouse, transporting them to the shops where it will be sold to the customers. E-business eliminated the need to maintain separate warehouses. Huge companies like Wal-M art switched to e-business many years before they established a website for themselves and entered e-commerce. They started by automating the inventory and supply chain process. The suppliers bought in packed products directly to the stores, eliminating the need for a separate warehouse and the transporting necessities. Their supply chain management underwent major changes under the influence of the IT sector. Positive effects: Changes made by Wal-Mart in their supply chain management influenced many other industries to follow the same. The traditional way of storing goods in warehouses started to dwindle slowly. Many industries like healthcare started to invest millions in training their suppliers to follow a uniform standard. More value was given to adding value to the goods rather than labelling it or sticking to the process. For example, consider the logistics industry. Earlier companies like Blue Dart and Fed Ex used to transport goods directly with their label. Nowadays they u se the services of various freight forwarding agencies to transport goods as fast as possible. Speed is the added value here and importance given to transport goods under a particular label is reduced. The supply chain management process is changed using advanced technologies to make the procedure much easier to manage and provide a better service to the customer. IBM conducted a detailed research on how

Tourism Policy and Planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Tourism Policy and Planning - Essay Example Hong Kong offers visitors the opportunity to experience the glimpse of its culture which is a fascinating experience as this great city has successfully combined the essence of an ancient and a modern world. Hong Kong acquired independence from Britain and became part of main land china in 1997. This transition changed tourism in the city a lot as many infrastructures were built afterwards. Natural parks, Disney land, and different hotels were built later. Since then, tourism has become an important role of Hong Kong. (Tsang, 2007). According Kwong (1997), Hong Kong has at least 118 hotels with about 43,866 rooms with an average tenancy rate of 85 per cent and an average length of stay of overnight visitors of 4 nights. The Tourism Commission (TC) of Hong Kong was mandated in May 1999 by the government of mainland china to put in place a variety of tourism growth efforts and to provide better policy hold up and leadership on the part of government to the growth of tourism in Hong Kon g. The commission aims to make Hong Kong Asia’s premier international city and a world-class destination for leisure and commerce tourists. The Hong Kong Tourism Board (HKTB) and the government work in agreement to bring in the community. It is healthy for the tourism industry that the community and the government work closely together. Literature review Tourism is travelling and staying in an unusual environment for leisure, recreation, or business among other purposes. Building on this understanding, it is agreeable that the tourism industry has experienced a substantial growth for the duration of the last century. Currently, tourism has become a global activity of leisure and recreational purposes, where most travelers spend time exploring and resting in attraction sites that are available around the world. Such attraction sites have unique features that are favorable to human enjoyment and perceptions. The features include great buildings, artwork, new cultures, and langu ages, historical and geographical sites, amongst other reasons. Such features in a given destination make tourists to travel several miles in order to experience their impacts towards the society. It is easy to wonder what tourists/consumers bring back after several days of total relation and or enjoyment of the great facilities, wonderful views and delicious food. Nonetheless, experience is an important benefit of the vacation. Consumers’ needs and wants noticeably differ, but gaining some positive (or negative) experiences is a predictable result of consuming the services/products they buy. Experience, or rather consumption experience, relates to the total outcome to a consumer from the combination of goods, environment as well as services purchased. Altogether, the nature of such experiences is vital for the tourism and hospitality industry especially considering that products associated with this industry are always experiential. This assessment demonstrates an understand ing of the experiential nature of tourism and hospitality marketing. This is achieved through addressing various issues such as; the nature of the experience economy, importance of experiences in tourism and hospitality, and the concept of experimental marketing from a broad perspective. The first issue to examine is the nature of the experience economy. Economic experience is rather a new vision for a new economic era. In this

Q & A Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Q & A - Coursework Example The boy sets out with a desire to fill the world with the music of his flute and his songs. Though his first encounter with the brown eyed girl is in accordance with innocence and his naive perceptions of beauty, it also acquaints him with the inseparable parts of love, pain and longing. For the first time, he encounters the necessity of making a tough choice between following the girl and continuing his journey. This is also his first encounter with the darker emotions of life, although in a milder form. The next part of the story can be interpreted in two ways. Assuming that the old boatman is the boy reminiscing about his past, his encounter with the brown eyed girl is not a single event but a metaphor of all moments of simple, unadulterated joy treasured by him. The memories of the girl are, in comparison with his present situation, used to raise the question of authenticity. His next encounter with the old man can be viewed in two different ways. First, the old man introducing t he then unknown feelings of sadness to the boy and his later desertion of the boat may represent the eternal cycle of life and death where all old forms of life must make place for the new ones. Since the author uses the boat in the river, it denotes the transition of the young man over years.

Managing Cutbacks at the Washington State Department of Social and Essay

Managing Cutbacks at the Washington State Department of Social and Health Services - Essay Example 97) affecting DSHS are as follows: (1) the program of reforms (cutting of expenses by 25%) instituted by President Reagan through the Economic Recovery Program; (2) Washington state’s tax system based on consumption and narrow economic base; (3) citizen legislatures that do not include potential leeway for increased taxes; (4) the increase in the state’s financial support for elementary and secondary education; and (5) state legislations ordering the recent cutbacks in spending for the last six months ending June 30, 1981. These are formal mandates of the DSHS since these rules, laws, legislations imposed by the federal government and other stakeholders (education sector) dictate the organization to design strategies to meet these mandates. Through the Economic Recovery Program that instituted diverse budget cuts across all federal and state funding programs, all agencies being governed are expected to adhere to these enactments, as proposed. The tax system of Washingto n State has been focused on sales and business tax that contribute to fluctuating revenues depending on the economic cycle. However, due to the conservative stance that persists, state legislators continue to support tax cuts despite the poor economic conditions that prevailed. There have been apparent favoring business establishments by giving concessions to deferred sales during economic difficulties which decrease state revenues while expenditures for social programs are expected to increase during these periods. The state opted to cut spending, instead, rather than increase taxes. On the other hand, the key informal mandates are: (1) no personal income tax; (2) shunned federal money; (3) advocated less dependence on federally funded social and health programs; (4) parallel spending patterned after federal grant funding patterns; and (5) the conservative

Presentation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 15

Presentation - Essay Example Though their disillusion with the government hugely influences their active participation into the voting process they are not totally disinterested as shown in 2012 election where two-third had backed Obama! It is not as though the young people do not take part in the political activities or have strong opinion about burning social issues. They support gay marriage, want to legalize abortion and of course, want the drinking age to be lowered. Even though the authenticity of the chart is not established, the information does give insight into the general interests of the young people. Their concern can be accurately gauged from survey result that stress that youngsters are of the view that 57% want smaller government, fewer services and lower tax. At the same time, 66% think government runs programs which are inefficient and wasteful! So when students and the young people reel under the burden of student loan with little employment opportunities, their dislike for the politics is

Cognitive dissonance theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Cognitive dissonance theory - Essay Example Cognitive dissonance is a term employed to describe the state of having two or more conflicting cognitions simultaneously, as people  experience new information in the context of their pre-existing knowledge (Festinger 10). Individuals experience psychological discomfort when they encounter information that challenges their beliefs or behavior. Discussion Cognitive dissonance theory pursues to explain how individuals minimize psychological discomfort and attain emotional equilibrium in the face of conflicting behaviors or beliefs. Cognitive dissonance theory (1957) holds that there are predictable responses that shape individual’s experience of discomfort or dissonance. Festinger advanced that if the new events or information support the pre-held beliefs, then the individual feels supported as the fresh stimuli is in harmony with the individual’s prior knowledge, referred to as a state of consonance. Individuals may accept the information as accurate but decline to ma ke changes; individuals may also accept the information as accurate and make appropriate changes (Festinger 12). Similarly, individuals may attack the messenger as incredible, or rationalize the information in a manner that relieves the discomfort. The theory of cognitive dissonance in communication purposes that a communicator carries around a wealthy assortment of cognitive elements such as attitudes, knowledge, perceptions, and behaviors. Cognitions, in this case, detail bits of knowledge in their simplest form pertaining variety of thoughts, facts, attitudes, behaviors, perceptions, emotions, and values. Thus, people experience the pressure to change when undertaking things that they know are uncomfortable for them. What is consonant or dissonant for one individual may not necessarily be the case for another person. This hinges fundamentally on what is consistent or inconsistent within an individual’s psychological system. The cognitive elements that people hold act as an interrelated system whereby every element (cognitions) relate to one another in three ways; null or irrelevant, consistent or consonant, and dissonant/inconsistent relationship (Festinger 14). Cognitive system in this case represents a multifaceted interrelating set of beliefs, values, and attitudes that influence and affect behavior. When dissonance occurs, individuals may change their behavior, justify their behavior by altering the conflicting cognition, or justify their behavior by adding fresh cognitions. Festinger noted that the experience of dissonance hinges on three factors; the number of consonant elements, the number of dissonant elements, and the significance of each element (Perry 154). A significant dissonant belief  results to a considerable cognitive dissonant compared to a less significant dissonant belief. Dissonance produces a tension or stress, which in turn creates pressure to change whereby the higher the dissonance, the higher the pressure to change. Tensio n reduction is automatically pursued by altering one’s evaluations by a certain degree. An individual opts to downplay the other so as to assure him/herself. In instances where there is dissonance, individuals attempt to minimize it, besides tending to avoid circumstances that cause additional dissonance. Leon Festinger (1919-1990) Leon Festinger was a social psychologist who  advanced that individuals often experience a distressing mental state when they undertake things that contradict their opinions, or what they know. The

Crime and Punishment and ways to make our prison system better Research Paper - 1

Crime and Punishment and ways to make our prison system better - Research Paper Example scourages the use of â€Å"probation and parole† as a result of which the offenders are being punished with longer prison terms with rare chances of â€Å"being released on parole† (9). Thus, in the present day, incarceration rates have been skyrocketing as a consequence of which there has been prison overcrowding across the US. Evidence further suggests that in 2008 alone, corrections have cost the exchequer a spending of â€Å"nearly $75 billion† across federal, state and local government facilities (10). Thus, it becomes evident that the heavy rate of incarcerations remains a hefty onus on the country’s financial resources. This high rate of incarceration can be perceived as a consequence of lack of education and the prevalence of poverty, which is considerably high in African American ethnic group, and the resultant emergence of a new racism. The Policy Information Report by the Educational Testing Service finds that the rate of incarceration of black youths, especially those who dropped out from school, has increased to such an extent as to â€Å"jeopardize the achievement of broader social justice goals† (Coley and Barton 3). This indicates that there is a gap in the educational opportunities of the Black youth as compared to the White people, which entails a greater number of incarcerations of the youngsters from black ethnical background. Research evidence further suggests that â€Å"illiteracy† and the lack of numerical skills are quite high in prisoners and a â€Å"half of all prisoners† does not possess any education at all (Crowded Out? The Impact of Prison Overcrowding on Rehabilitation 10). In the modern day, the job market has become highly competitive and business organizations have a wide variety of choices of workforce. Thus, people who do not possess adequate educational qualification and professional skills remain unemployed. This situation compels them to look for alternative sources of income and they embark on criminal activities for earning

Managerial Applications of Technology - Final Case Study

Managerial Applications of Technology - Final - Case Study Example The very first thing to do is to set up a framework for IT acquisition (p. 592). This entails identifying the appropriate IT applications that would be used in the organizational restructure, justifying that the new set of IT applications to be acquired is worthwhile in terms of costs and benefits, and planning the processes of acquisition and implementation of the newly acquired IT applications (pp 592-594). Some of the options available for IT acquisition are through lease of the required IT applications, outright buying or purchase of the application, developing the applications in-house or subcontracting the whole IT process to external managers/consultants. Whichever option chosen must be cost-effective; it must also help in initiating business process redesigning within the organization (pp. 600-606). If properly handled, this organizational transformation would also be instrumental in connecting the organization’s databases and 2 enterprise systems, and providing a smoo th link or integration to the organization’s business partners (p. 606). All the processes highlighted above could only successful happen if there is effective managerial or leadership establishment. This signifies that all the organization’s employees must support and work hard towards the change. 3 Outsourcing/Off-Shoring: Pros and Cons Question 2: You’ve been asked to work with HR to evaluate the potential for outsourcing some IT functions including the potential use of off-shore resources. What are the advantages and disadvantages associated with outsourcing? What can you share with your HR partner regarding the reasons to outsource, factors to be considered, and potential risks? Based on your knowledge of outsourcing/off-shoring what are your thoughts regarding work that would not be good a candidate for outsourcing/off-shoring? What methods will you suggest to measure the value of an outsourcing/off-shoring relationship? Answer 2: Some organizations percei ve IT outsourcing as a way of subsidizing their capital expenses and working towards cost-effectiveness to maximize profits (p. 506). However, there are some important factors that should be strictly considered before outsourcing/off-shoring some functions of any organization’s IT Department. Some commonly touted advantages of outsourcing/off-shoring include that it is cost-saving; it allows business expansion; it creates exposure to better technical expertise; it is flexible and encourage better quality and improvement; and it supports major organizational transformation (pp.506-510). But some of the disadvantages of outsourcing include de-motivation in in-house IT professionals; having negative effect on business strategy; the problem of confidentiality risks; and the fear of sudden collapse of IT provider. The main reason why an organization may seriously consider outsourcing its IT functions is to reduce the overhead capital 4 expenses on its IT requirements. However, it is helpful to consider some factors before going into outsourcing: these include choosing the right external IT Service Provider; estimating the cost of off-shoring; and identifying which applications should not be outsourced based on the importance of their confidentiality to the organization’s future. Even though all the factors outlined in the

Trickster Tale Essay Example for Free

Trickster Tale Essay In ancient India, there used too live a Bengal tiger in the jungle of Sundarban. He was the king of the jungle. He was very cruel and used to treat his animals harshly. Once he ordered that he would not go for hunting and assigned duties to animals to provide him large quantities of hunted meat bring hunting meat on daily basis. One day, it was the turn of one rabbits, Harry, to bring hunted meat for him. He was very disappointed when his fellow, John, met him in the way. John was blessed with certain supernatural power, the power of prophesy and to see the past events. He was very sharp minded also. Due to his excessive pride in his supernatural powers and intelligence, he desired to become the king of the jungle. He used to intermingle with other animals at parties occasionally and used to propagandize against king. But his desire only remained a dream. John saw Harry as worried and gloomy. He asked the cause of his gloominess. Harry replied; ‘em! Nothing’, ‘Then why are you worried’, said John. ‘Hoon, but you can not help me’. John insisted and Harry told, â€Å"I have to hunt for king today but being a meager creature, I can not hunt an animal to provide meat to the king.†   John mocked him and said ironically, â€Å"Kill hundred thousands of ants and insects, make mince meat of them and provide that to the king. Ask him that you killed an elephant for him†. Harry started moving when John said, â€Å"Listen†¦I have an idea.† Harry turned and John said, â€Å"Leave the matter to me and I will go to the king in your place. Go and hide yourself somewhere.† They leave and John went to the King empty-handed. When King enquired what he has brought for him. He started weeping and crying. King thought that due to his little stature, he was unable to hunt. King started laughing at him and said, â€Å"Not to get worry†¦Not to get worry†¦.I am going to have your own meat for my dinner†. Harry stopped weeping and said to King, â€Å"I killed a 2000 KG elephant for you but transportation was a problem. And when I arranged that, another Lion came in the way and warned me that it is for him. I was left with no option †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..I came empty handed.† King became furious at this and asked him to lead that way. John led the king to the well and asked him that other lion lived in this well. When King looked down in the well, he saw his own reflection in the water of the well. He took it as the other lion. As he was furious, he jumped into the well and drowned. He started shouting aloud. When other animals gathered around him, He said that Harry has thrown king into the well and has escaped. He further informed that while King was taking his last breathe, he appointed him the new king. By using his supernatural power, he showed animals where Harry was hiding. Furious animals went there and killed Harry without seeking explanation. John was appointed king. Although his lust for power and wealth was unlimited but he did not harmed his animals. He served his animals by using his intelligence and supernatural powers. One day, Powell, a donkey came to him and asked that his daughter was missing. John used his prophetic powers to know the location of his daughter. He found that Powell’s daughter has been abducted by neighboring jungle kingdom. This provided him to prepare his people against that kingdom. His real motive was not to get free Powell’s daughter but to capture the wealth of that kingdom. He attacked with full force. Kings of the neighboring jungle was quite of the greediness of John. So he prepared a deep ditch and covered with a jewels and gold. When John saw abundance of wealth, he jumped over it and was thrown into the ditch. Armed animals bruised him with their arms. When he was taking his breathe, he realized that positions gained through wrong means had no permanence and greed only brings misfortune.

Research Project Preparation

Research Project Preparation Introduction If we knew what we were doing, it would not be called research, would it?(Einstein). Life is exciting, and it will be surprising to find many things that have been avoided in particular society, somehow become most loved in others. A simple example is vegemite, while there were 10 of 10 of American kids felt it was disgusting[1], for sure, many Australians and New Zealanders will argue. Even, Australian dairy company, Bega, has spent A$460 million to acquire the brand back to Australian hand.[2] From that example, some questions might arouse: why those kids hate vegemite?; Why Australians and New Zealanders love vegemite?; How vegemite can be accepted in USA markets?. In an academic environment, some of those questions might lead to research. This essay will discuss research process, in particular, the process of planning research. And within it, explaining the definition of research and research process, the relationship between research topic and research question, the importance o f literature review, how the use of theory affect research approach/design, the goal of research a proposal and the importance of argument in academic writing. O Leary defines that the process of developing new knowledge by gathering data that answers a particular question is called Research[3]. So, what are those questions? For some, it is their concerns in issues encountered in life, for instance, poverty, famine, corruption, etc. For others, it will come from their passion for enjoying life. It is all the questions which relates to the need of new knowledge to solve our problems and curiosities[4]. Human curiosity is very diverse, from a question on how to have a beautiful delicacy to a dinner, to a complex idea on how to establish world peace. In some way, research is a means to contribute to options to fulfill curiosity, in which probably is the best practice to solve problems. However, there are, in some circumstances, many complexities to determine people behavior and their decisions, so, research needs plans, strategy, firm decision, and while at the same times, flexible to new changes to find the right knowledge to understand the p roblems, hence, be able to offer suitable recommendations for better future. As, O Leary mentioned that research is a creative and strategic process that involves continually assessing, reassessing, and making decisions about the best possible means for obtaining trustworthy information, carrying out appropriate analysis, and drawing credible conclusions[5]. Research process is a journey full of challenges which needs strategy, plan, every strength and support available to make it succeed in times and end up with expected result[6]. Meticulously planned steps are essential in a research process, such as 1. Find Research topic. 2. Articulate research questions. 3. Navigate ways trough ethics. 4. Work with literature. 5. Develop methodological approach. 6. Design methods. 7. Construct a coherent proposal. 8. Find respondents. 9. Collect data. 10. Analyze data, and 11. Write research report[7]. Every step comes with challenges[8], which sometimes are not easy to cope with. It may come from environment, family, requirements, resources, social barrier. And many of them come internally from the researchers, in such, low motivation, lack of confidence, unconstructive habits, background, work ethics, etc. It needs commitment and strategies to use the best support available and also the best state of own capabilities. It is a journey to find answ ers that is different from traveling where it has certain sets of destination. Where in between, it is needed to come back and forth to asses and reassess to keep everything on track. And by the end, it will take to a point where another research is needed[9]. Why? As new questions will emerge, society develop, human have a never-ending curiosity, problem bound to happen anytime and anywhere. However, with all of the challenges, there some, like in most journey, that found wonderful experience by doing research[10]. Explore mystery, find the unknown, and satisfy curiosity, while contributing to a better world are a very nice start to spark passion in research. The initial step in planning research is to find a well-thought research topic, and from those formulate a research question that structures a well-executed research. A research topic is an idea which will be the background of a research[11]. And as mentioned, with human curiosity, passions, issues, and problem surrounding, there will be no lack of idea. The challenge is on how to narrow down from so many interest surround, a remarkable idea that is feasible could come out[12]. O Leary explained that there are three ways to obtain research topic: 1. Concept mapping, which offers enhancement of creativity by looking problems from many perspectives, and therefore, have a brainstorm for a research topic; 2. Turning to literature, to identify information, ideas, theories and problems for research topics from a different perspective; 3. Looking for inspiration, that might be drawn from, personal insight and experiences, observations, contemporary/timely issues, and, identifying stakeholde rs need[13]. After research topic confirmed, well-articulated research questions are important, as to indicate the level of understanding of the topics and to structure logical course of action, to define an investigation, to set boundaries, to provide direction and to act as a frame of reference for assessing progress[14]. It will be the milestones for research process, set as achievable goals that tell how far steps has been taken, and how far it is needed to the end point. However, it is in researcher discretion to assess and reassess the questions to appropriately stay on track, undertake another direction based on new information, and new interesting information found[15]. Next principle step to plan and to prepare good research is reviewing literature. For most, Literature review is not new research, it is a way to learn from past knowledge, which offers unlimited theories, methodology, and experiences, as a valuable starting point to design research[16]. Delving into literatures strengthens the level of understanding of research topic, defines and redefines research questions, uncovers gaps in research rationales for further identification, and compares past approaches from various researches that have previously been conducted to discover suitable approach for own research[17]. Argument occupies a very important place in writing Literature review as an initial part of research. Even literature review itself is a purposeful argument, a form of argument to inform audience of what is happening in the field, to establish credibility as a knowledgeable and capable researcher, to argue the relevance and significance of research question, to provide the co ntext for own methodological approach and to argue the relevance and appropriateness of approach[18]. In doing so, it needs a strong evidence-based argument by compare and contrast own argument with past researchers, then synthesize and make arguments in own perspective as a part of further research[19]. Having confidence needed to initiate a research from reviewing literature, the next step is to develop most appropriate research approach and design. Understand on how theory used within research gives an overview to develop an effective approach. Explained by Creswell that each approach has its unique way of using theory. In quantitative approach, a theory will be used deductively, placed in the initial part of the research to provide an explanation or prediction about the relationship between variables and how variables affect other. The theory will be tested throughout the process in order to prove the validity of researcher prediction of variables relationship in particular aspects and environments. In qualitative approach, there are four ways on how theory is used: 1. As a broad explanation for behavior and attitudes, it is much similar on how theory used in quantitative approach where a general description of behavior and attitudes will begin the research, and series of prepare d hypothesis will be tested throughout; 2. As a theoretical lens or perspective; the perspective based on theoretical aspects such as race; gender; class, shapes research topics, questions, method and on how researcher position themselves that will obviously affect the written report and recommendations. 3. As an end point, in this case, theory will be the product of inductive thinking process of a research, where, collected bit of information will be developed into theory, generalizations, patterns, and then, compared with experience and existing literature to form researcher theorys; 4. In some qualitative study theory is not used, in these case researcher constructs a rich detailed description of a central phenomenon. In mixed method research, theory is used as a framework, social and transformative, that affect research methods in collecting, analyzing, processing quantitative and qualitative information[20]. The Last step in planning a research, as an expression of readiness to embark on the journey, is composing research proposal. Research proposal is a writing to convince other, a mean to argue that selected research questions are significance in obtaining results, a way to show that research methodology is effective, efficient and ethical to answers questions, and sometimes, it is the only opportunity to show potential as a researcher worthy for the job[21]. To construct convincing research proposal, all elements of research proposal; title; aims/objective; research questions/hypothesis; introduction; literature review; theoretical perspective; methods; limitations/delimitations; ethical considerations; timeline; budget/funding; and references should be written in a way to show clarity of thoughts, veracity of arguments and researcher potential[22]. The goal is to seek approval from admission boards, funding body or an ethic committee to initiate research, and by overcome the challeng es and meet the requirements[23], research plan will be tested and perfected. However, following guidelines, drafting and then redrafting at the same time be confident and open will contribute significantly[24]. Another important factor to remember as part of research process is the role of argument in academic writing. In every step of research there is a need for writings, for example, literature review, research proposal, research report, writing summary to challenge rationale and many others. Where, the nature of an academic writing requires to really understand the depth of principles, theories, and concepts and put it as reasonable statements to explain more concepts, process and procedures[25], research and academic writing cannot be separated. Within research process to find answers to contribute to the body of knowledge[26], research topic, research questions, rationale will be tested, it will perfected, to come out with conclusions and recommendations. Therefore, those conclusions, recommendations, concepts need to be written convincingly, supported by evidence, considered from different perspectives, and reasonable[27], to prove that the journey worth the effort. Conclusion This essay has discussed that research process is a journey. It definitely needs a well plan, and meticulous preparation, however, it is significant to bear in mind that within the process, it is requisite to come back and forth, assess and reassess, in open mindset and use the best of capabilities. Initial step to plan a research is to generate an idea for research topic. The challenge is to focus on idea that feasible and satisfy curiosity, and from that idea formulate research question that structured a well-executed research. Next important step to plan and prepare good research is to review literature, to learn from past knowledge by compare, contrast, analyze and synthesize ideas, theories, and methodologies as an initial standing. Next principal step is to understand on how theory as a framework, shapes differences between research approach to plan own approach. Final step in planning a research is by composing research proposal to convince and seek approval needed to start re search. Other important factor to remember, is that an academic writing and research process cannot be separated. Hence, to convince audience with strong evidence-based argument within research writings, to show that the journey worth the price is a must. References Constructing an Argument. Massey University. June 19 2014. Accessed March 21, 2017. http://owll.massey.ac.nz/study-skills/constructing-an-argument.php. Creswell, Jowhn W. 2014. Research Design. Washington DC: Sage Publication Inc. Davison, R.M., Martinsons, M.G., Kock N. 2004. Information Systems. Principles of Canonical Action Research 14. Lee, Sally. 2014. Is it the Australian version of Nutella? Daily Mail. August 30. Accessed March 21, 2017. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2738265/American-kids-taste-test-Vegemite-reactions-priceless.html . Miller, Jake. 2012. Nurturing a Passion for Research. Harvard Medical School. July 24. Accessed March 21, 2017. https://hms.harvard.edu/news/nurturing-passion-research-7-24-12. Niesche, Christopher. 2017. Vegemite back in Aussie hands. NZherald.co.nz. January 22. Accessed March 21, 2017. http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3objectid=11786765. O Leary, Zina. 2014. The Essential Guide To Doing Your Research Project. London: Sage Publication, Inc. Webster, Jane, and Richard T Watson. 2002. Analyzing the Past to Prepare for the Future: Writing a Literature Review. MIS Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 2 xiv. What Is Academic Writing. Massey University. October 25 2012. Accessed March 21, 2017. http://owll.massey.ac.nz/academic-writing/what-is-academic-writing.php. [1] Sally Lee, Is it the Australian version of Nutella?, Daily Mail http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2738265/American-kids-taste-test-Vegemite-reactions-priceless.html [2] C. Niesche, Vegemite back in Aussie hands, NZherald.co.nz http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3objectid=11786765 [3] Zina O Leary. 2014. The Essential Guide To Doing Your Research Project. (London: Sage Publication. Inc), 3. [4] Ibid,2. [5] Zina O Leary. 2014. The Essential Guide To Doing Your Research Project. (London: Sage Publications, Inc), [6] Ibid, 18-28. [7] Ibid, 1. [8] Ibid, 28. [9] Davison, R. M., Martinsons, M. G., Kock N., Principles of Canonical Action Research, Information Systems Journal (2004): 14 [10] Jake Miller, Nurturing a Passion for Research, Harvard Medical School, https://hms.harvard.edu/news/nurturing-passion-research-7-24-12 [11] Zina O Leary. 2014. The Essential Guide To Doing Your Research Project. (London: Sage Publications, Inc), 32-33. [12] Ibid, 33. [13] Zina O Leary. 2014. The Essential Guide To Doing Your Research Project. (London: Sage Publications, Inc), 33-34 [14] Ibid, 45 [15] Ibid, 45 [16] Jane Webster, Richard T. Watson. Analyzing the Past to Prepare for the Future: Writing a Literature Review. MIS Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 2 (2002) xiv. [17] Locit, 86-88 [18] Ibid 99 [19] Ibid 98 [20] John W. Creswell, 2014. Research Design. (Washington DC: Sage Publication, Inc), 52-69. [21] Zina O Leary. 2014. The Essential Guide To Doing Your Research Project. (London: Sage Publications, Inc), 72-74. [22] Ibid, 74-77. [23] Ibid, 72. [24] Zina O Leary. 2014. The Essential Guide To Doing Your Research Project. (London: Sage Publications, Inc), 77-78. [25] What Is Academic Writing, Massey University, http://owll.massey.ac.nz/academic-writing/what-is-academic-writing.php [26] Locit,3 [27] Constructing an Argument, Massey University, http://owll.massey.ac.nz/study-skills/constructing-an-argument.php

The role and portrayal of Women in the media

The role and portrayal of Women in the media Introduction Media is considered as a traditionally male job and generally it is thought that women journalists can not skip the glass ceiling phenomenon. Pakistan is another minefield of challenges for journalists, especially female journalists. The problem prevails mostly in electronic media scenario as women are making more appearances on screen with the boom of private TV channels. They are considered less prominent. Female journalists working in developed countries are also facing such problems but Pakistani female journalists are in the initial stages towards progress. In Pakistan, with the advent of increasing number of private TV channels, female journalists quite often appear on our television screens. Anchor women, foreign correspondents, and special correspondents are omnipresent in the main broadcast news shows and in current affairs programs. They are considered beautiful and successful women, as well as trend-setters with respect to clothes, make-up and hairstyles. Print journalism, where the physical image is replaced by the reporters name, this phenomenon is much less prominent than electronic media. In spite of the large entrance of female personnel into the professional work of information, women on top of editorial staff are still a scanty minority: this is, however, no different to Western countries. Thanks to television, female journalists have acquired great visibility. Recently The International Womens Media Foundation announced that Rabia Mehmood, a journalist in the Lahore bureau of Express 24/7 Television in Pakistan, has received its 2010-11 Elizabeth Neuffer Fellowship. Mehmood is the sixth recipient of the annual fellowship, which gives a woman journalist working in print, broadcast or online media the opportunity to focus exclusively on human rights journalism and social justice issues. Throughout her career, Mehmood has reported on topics such as womens rights, freedom of speech and political unrest. She has covered the survivors and victims of terrorist attacks, suicide bombings and hostage sieges carried out by militants in Lahore. Mehmood has also reported on internally displaced people who left Northwest Pakistan as a result of insurgency by terrorists and military offensives. But this is not the case of every female journalist. Most of them are assigned to cover social, cultural, soft stories, days events, or light events. But male journalists get the preference to get a significant assignment, stories which might be lead stories. With the evolution of time and in order to follow the west, Pakistani media is giving important posts to female journalists but in fact the power still lies in the hands of dominant males. Editorial Boards mostly consist of male members. Gender discrimination in journalism is very distinct and they are given the same benefits as to their male colleagues. Some of the most prominent women working in Pakistani electronic media are Aasma Chuhdry Dr Ayesha Siddiqa Katrina Hussain Bushra Rehman, Najia Ashar Naseem Zehra Saadia Afzaal Sheren Mazari Asma Sherazi Zahida Hina Sana Bucha Sumaira Nadeem Sana Mirza Ayesha Baksh And many more Theoretical Framework Gender Role Theory: Gender role theory posits that boys and girls learn the appropriate behavior and attitudes from the family and overall culture they grow up with, and so non-physical gender differences are a product of socialization. Social role theory proposes that the social structure is the underlying force for the gender differences. Social role theory proposes that the sex-differentiated behavior is driven by the division of labor between two sexes within a society. Division of labor creates gender roles, which in turn, lead to gendered social behavior. The physical specialization of the sexes is considered to be the distal cause of the gender roles. Mens unique physical advantages in term of body size and upper body strength provided them an edge over women in those social activities that demanded such physical attributes such as hunting, herding and warfare. On the other hand, womens biological capacity for reproduction and child-rearing is proposed to explain their limited involvement in other social activities. Such divided activity arrangement for the purpose of achieving activity-efficiency led to the division of labor between sexes. Social role theorists have explicitly stressed that the labor division is not narrowly defined as that between paid employment and domestic activities, rather, is conceptualized to include all activities performed within a society that are necessary for its existence and sustainability. The characteristics of the activities performed by men and women became peoples perceptions and beliefs of the d ispositional attributes of men or women themselves. Through the process of correspondent inference, division of labor led to gender roles, or gender stereotype. Ultimately, people expect men and women who occupy certain position to behave according to these attributes. These socially constructed gender roles is considered to be hierarchical and characterized as a male-advantaged gender hierarchy. The activities men involved in were often those that provided them with more access to or control of resources and decision making power, rendering men not only superior dispositional attributes via correspondence bias (Gilbert, 1998, p.**), but also higher status and authority as society progressed. The particular pattern of the labor division within a certain society is a dynamic process and determined by its specific economical and cultural characteristics. For instance, in an industrial economy, the emphasis on physical strength in social activities becomes less compared with that in a less advanced economy. In a low birth rate society, women will be less confined to reproductive activities and thus more likely to be involved in a wide range of social activities. The beliefs that people hold about the sexes are derived from observations of the role per formances of men and women and thus reflect the sexual division of labor and gender hierarchy of the society. The consequences of gender roles and stereotypes are sex-typed social behavior because roles and stereotypes are both socially shared descriptive norms and prescriptive norms. Gender roles provide guides to normative behaviors that are typical, ought-to-be and thus likely effective for each sex within certain social context. Gender roles also depict ideal, should-be, and thus desirable behaviors for men and women who are occupying a particular position or involving in certain social activities. Put is another way, men and women, as social beings, strive to belong and seek for approval by complying and conforming to the social and cultural norms within their society. The conformity to social norms not only shapes the pattern, but also maintains the very existence of sex-typed social behavior. In summary, social role theory treats these differing distributions of women and men into roles as the primary origin of sex-differentiated social behavior, their impact on behavior is mediated by psychological and social processes including developmental and socialization processes, as well as by processes involved in social interaction (e.g., expectancy confirmation) and self-regulation Social Construction of Gender Difference This perspective proposes that gender difference is socially constructed. This perspective believes that gender is socially constructed. Social constructionism of gender moves away from socialization as the origin of gender differences; people do not merely internalize gender roles as they grow up but they respond to changing norms in society. Children learn to categorize themselves by gender very early on in life. A part of this is learning how to display and perform gendered identities as masculine or feminine. Boys learn to manipulate their physical and social environment through physical strength or other skills, while girls learn to present themselves as objects to be viewed. Children monitor their own and others gendered behavior. Gender-segregated childrens activities create the appearance that gender differences in behavior reflect an essential nature of male and female behavior. Judith Bulter contends that being female is not natural and that it appears natural only through repeated performances of gender; these performances in turn, reproduce and define the traditional categories of sex and/or gender. A social constructionist view looks beyond categories and examines the intersections of multiple identities, the blurring of the boundaries of essentialist categories. This is especially true with regards to categories of male and female that are typically viewed by others as binary and opposites of each other. By deconstructing categories of gender, the value placed on masculine traits and behaviors disappears. However, the elimination of categories makes it difficult to make any comparisons between the genders or to argue and fight against male domination. Feminism, masculinism and religious views Some feminists see gender differences as caused by patriarchy or discrimination, although difference feminism argues for an acceptance of gender differences. Conservative masculists tend to see gender differences as inherent in human nature, while liberal masculists see gender differences as caused by matriarchy and discrimination. History of the struggle of female journalists: Since the 1960s, feminists have argued that it matters who makes it. When it comes to the mass media, who makes it continues to be men. Women working in the media have made some inroads. In 2001, the International Federation of Journalists reported that around the world, 38 per cent of all working journalists are women. Studies conducted by Canadian researchers Gertrude Robinson and Armande Saint-Jean have found that 28 per cent of newspaper editors are female. And according to San Diego State University communications professor Martha Lauzen, 24 per cent of American television producers, writers, and directors are women. Denis Monià ¨re, political analyst and professor at Quebecs University of Montreal maintains that even if the visibility of female journalists has grown in the last ten years, we shouldnt be too quick to shout victory. In 2002, the Canadian Newspaper Association reported that 43 per cent of Canadian newspaper employees are women. However, they account for only eight per cent of editors-in-chief and twelve per cent of publishers. Women employed in the sector tend to work in pink-collar ghettos; they make up 70 per cent of the advertising department, and 80 per cent of the accounting and finance staff. In addition to being un-represented in positions of authority, Monià ¨re thinks women are also under-utilized in covering the subjects considered most important-politics, economy and social trends. And when it comes to the evening news, women are almost invisible. The posting of Sophie Thibault in 2002 as the ten oclock news anchor for the national French-language channel TVA is a first for Canada. Most often, women are consigned to noon-hour shows, local newscasts, fill-ins and weekend spots. However, men continue to occupy approximately 75 per cent of the positions of power in the mass media. The 2001 study conducted by the Annenberg Public Policy Center at the University of Pennsylvania is equally damning. The Center reports that only 13 per cent of the top executives of American media, telecommunications and e-companies are female. And that 13 per cent is not concentrated at the top: women constitute only 9 per cent of the boards of directors for these companies, and they hold only 3 per cent of the most powerful positions. CURRENT SITUATION: Women in Islamic nations are increasingly being heard, seen and listened to, thanks in part to leading female voices determined to make a difference, despite challenges ranging from motherhood to threats on their lives. One of the hostesses of a popular Saudi program called Speaking Softly says that until recently, she did not see people like herself on television. Muna Abusulayman is one of four anchorwomen on the show that deals with various issues in a talk format. Of the four, Abusulayman is the only one who wears a hijab, or headscarf. She is also divorced and lives alone with her child in Saudi Arabia. Women in the Middle East actually make up the majority of anchors and presenters on television. But, Abusulayman says, they are much less prominent behind the scenes and in other media like print and radio. Tasneem Ahmar, who runs a media and advocacy group in Pakistan as well as producing radio programs on womens issues, agrees with Abusulayman. With more than 25 years experience as a journalist, Ahmar says that, not unlike the West, most decision-making jobs, top executive positions, and tough assignments are given to men. Women normally are assigned very soft issues social issues, cultural issues, she said. There are very few women, youll find, who are doing hard political stories or economic stories or current affairs programs. Tasneem Ahmar thinks positive changes for women in the Middle East and the Islamic world are on the horizon. She predicts that a new wave of young women in the Pakistani media will have an impact in five to ten years in her country. These young girls who have come in, theyre very ambitious and theyre very hard working and I dont think anything is going to stop them from going to the top positions. While there is still a lot of work to be done, the women hope that their efforts and successes in the media will inspire not only women but men too. Or maybe there is truth to the old adage, the best man for the job is a woman. One woman in the Middle East who does cover tough stories and speaks out is May Chidiac. She is the host of a Lebanese TV program called With Audacity. Chidiac is known all over the Arab world for her tenacious journalism. A victim of an assassination attempt by suspected Syrian agents, she lost a hand and a leg in a car bombing in September 2005. After numerous surgeries, she went straight back to work. Reporter of an English Newspaper from Dhaka says that in most cases, chief reporters/assignment editors (almost everyone are male) do not assign them something special/important or significant reports. They are still assigned soft stories, days events, or light events. But male journalists get the preference to get a significant assignment, stories which might be lead stories. But the interesting point is that, many female journalists in our country now protesting this kind of attitudes and they are getting serious kind of assignment after fighting with their bosses. In Bangladesh, this is a very new phenomenon to appoint female journalists in electronic media, However, critics pointed that as female is more attractive then male in electronic media, so the media owners appoints the female journalists to attract audiences. About 15 percent female journalists are now working in countrys 11 state and privately run TV channels. On the other hand, in print media, we are very few female reporters are which any working journalist can count within 10 minutes. There are some other sectors of the media where female are more visible then reporting like hazardous and glamorous job for unknown reasons. Anam Istafa, Sub editor, National Herald Tribune openly admits that female journalists are usually assumed to be dumb and so tender hearted for Hard news coverage especially of blasts and natural disasters. She says that very rare females are at the executive positions in media news media business. Most of them usually follow guideline and policies by their male bosses. Policy and decision makers are predominantly men. Despite the increase of womens visibility in media organizations, journalists in South Asia are hardly seen in the decision-making positions. This was one of the several issues highlighted by more than 200 women working in the media from every SAARC country, who came together for the first time in Lahore, Pakistan, for a two-day meeting on Women in Media Challenges, Opportunities and Partnership. Women media persons from Maldives, Bhutan and Nepal pointed out that none of the print media in their country has ever had a female journalist heading the newsroom. Participants from India, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka raised similar concerns, and also pointed out that man in their media organizations outnumbered women. Most of the participants cited long and difficult working hours, lack of incentives and appreciation to keep women working in the media, fulfilling household obligations and unequal wages as some of the reasons why women in the media are under-represented at various levels in South Asia. These were also some of the reasons why most female media persons, after working for few years, leave the profession for other jobs. Portrayal of women in the media as victims was also discussed extensively. Some of the participants pointed out that women make news in several South Asian news media only when they are victims of conflict, crime, natural disasters or terrorism. However, one of the guest speakers, Pakistans federal information minister, Qamar Zaman Kaira, said: Women journalists play an important role in voicing concerns of the victims in conflict areas, who are often women and children. Some of these victims are more comfortable sharing their experiences with female professionals. He urged women media persons to also take up more serious and hard-hitting issues relating to politics, security and conflict. Senior journalist in Pakistan, Shehar Bano, said at the conference that international research studies indicate transformation in news content brought on by an influx of women into the news media. Issues such as health, education, child care and women workers have gained prominent slots in newspapers, she said. Bandana Rana from Nepal said, however, that there are also many female media persons, who are confined to covering only feature articles on art, culture and lifestyle and very few female reporters are assigned business, economics or political stories. It was resolved during the meeting that female media persons should be given training opportunities to enhance their skills to cover all issues, along with mentorship programmes between senior and junior female journalists. Former Chairperson, Department of Mass Communications at University of Karachi, Professor Shahida Qazi said she is happy that more and more Pakistani women are now joining media. She recalled when in 1966 she had joined Daily Dawn Karachi as a reporter, many people were surprised. She said now more than 70 percent of Karachi University students are women. She said in the Department of Mass Communications, there are more female students than males. Former Secretary Information Department, and TV compere Mehtab Akbar Rashdi said declaration of the state of emergency and curbs on media in Pakistan have shocked journalists, writers and human right activists. She said the dream of gender justice and equality could not materialize until change of mindset in male population. She said even today in the practical field female journalists face many problems due to this dogmatic thinking. Rashdi said steps for empowerment of women should be taken from the home. She said parents should encourage their daughters to get higher education and work in every walk of life. Electronic media in Pakistan is highlighting gender-related issues in a better way in comparison to print media, because more women journalists work in TV channels. Pakistani women have entered the field of journalism after a tough competition. Now women journalists and photographers could be seen working in Pakistani society and it is a welcome change. Association of Television Journalists (ATJ) only has some 50 females among its 700 or so members around the country, but nearly half of them are concentrated in the business capital of Karachi. Women are highly visible in the Pakistani media as anchors and talk show hosts on dozens of private radio and television channels in various regional languages, besides English and Urdu. Women are paid less than their male colleagues for equal work and have to fight harder for the political or other high profile assignments Most identify sexual harassment as their biggest concern, according to Zebunnisa Burki, who has been coordinating South Asian Women in Media (SAWM) EFFORTS /STEPS TAKEN TO PROMOTE ROLE OF WOMEN IN MEDIA Gender Equality Beyond 2005: Building a more secure future for women reporters To mark International Womens Day on 8 March 2005, UNESCOs Director-General, KoÃÆ' ¯chiro Matsuura, launched for the fourth time the global initiative Women Make the News. UNESCO appeals to all media producing daily news to hand over editorial responsibility to women to cast the news on that day. UNESCO Supports Gender in Journalism Awards in Pakistan The Pakistan Press Foundation (PPF) organizes the Gender in Journalism Awards to honour excellence in gender sensitive reporting in the country. UNESCO supports the two awards, each carrying a cash prize of Rs 25,000 (US$ 400), that will be given to Pakistani journalists. One award recognizes models for excellence and best practices in coverage of gender related issues. It is open to both male and female journalists. The second award honours outstanding coverage of any issue by a female journalist. Its aim is to promote role models for women entering or planning to enter the journalism field. Journalists working in print media may nominate their own work, or editors and others may nominate articles that promote the objectives of the awards. Fiji Women Community Radio Initiative femLINKpacific (Media Initiatives for Women), a womens media NGO, launched in 2004 femTALK 89.2FM, a mobile womens community radio project. In January 2005, as a result of the grant of UNESCOs Intergovernmental Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC), the femLINKpacific is taking the suitcase radio to women in their communities. The aim of the femTALK 89,2FM project is to not only create a new space on the radio waves for community based discussion, but also to provide practical opportunities for women within their own communities to highlight and address issues relevant to them. The main focus of femLINKpacifics range of community media initiatives is women speaking to women for peace. The decision making structures still lack equal representation by women and the capacity of women, especially from the rural population and the poor, to communicate openly on common matters should be increased. International Womens Media Foundation Since its founding in 1990, the International Womens Media Foundation has conducted training programs on five continents, in 26 countries and over the Internet with the goal of strengthening the role of women in the news media worldwide. The IWMF supports women in the media through groundbreaking projects, and innovative research and training designed to help women develop their skills and become leaders in their profession. Since 1990, the IWMF has honored more than 50 extraordinarily brave and hardworking journalists with Courage in Journalism Awards. The only international awards designed to recognize the contributions of women on journalisms front lines, the Courage awards recognize women who have faced physical attacks, prison terms, beatings, rape, and death threats to themselves and their families. Training Women Media Professionals Internews is one of the worlds leading trainers of female media professionals, training more than 25,000 women in media skills since 2003 alone. Internews helps women get on the air and in the newsrooms in societies where their participation has been marginalized, allowing for reporting on all issues-not just womens issues-to be done through the voices of women in that society. Mainstreaming Womens Issues To ensure that the media meet the needs of all audiences, Internews works to foster womens leadership in the media industry so that issues of vital concern to women are mainstreamed, integrated across all programming and not relegated to a niche market. In communities where specific gender issues are underreported, such as gender-based violence or womens health, Internews has developed special programs produced by and for women. Pakistans First Radio Program by and for Women In Pakistan, where only three percent of journalists are women, Internews has worked to increase the number of women working in media, training women at journalism programs established by Internews at universities from Peshawar to Rawalpindi to Balochistan. Internews launched Meri Awaz Suno (Hear My Voice), the countrys first independent syndicated program that features women as both producers and subjects. In 2003, Internews built a state-of-theart independent radio production facility in Islamabad where women journalists are trained in radio reporting and production and work on Meri Awaz Suno. The radio show airs on 19 independent radio stations across the country, and focuses on issues such as politics, education and health. Before Internews training, most reporters working on Meri Awaz Suno had little experience working in radio or journalism. Now they are leaders the first women in Pakistan to work as independent broadcast journalists, and role models for young women. Establishment of Forum Named :Women Journalists Pakistan (WJP) The women journalists of twin cities of Rawalpindi and Islamabad formally announced Women Journalists Pakistan (WJP) forum to address professional problems faced by them and find out ways to nurture their skills. The ceremony was organized at the National Press Club, Islamabad in which Javed Akhtar, Director News Associated Press of Pakistan, Absar Alam, Anchor person Aaj TV, Qatrina Hussain, Anchor person Express TV and Fozia Shahid Anchor Person ATV shared their through provoking ideas and views with a large number of female journalists present there. According to WJP members, the body is a non-political and intellectual-based forum that aims to provide platform to working women journalists in the print and electronic media. In addition to raising a collective voice on issues faced by women journalists, the forum will initially focus on two basic aspects networking and facilitating journalists avail media-related career-building opportunities. The WJP hierarchy is: Myra Imran of The News (Convener); Saadia Khalid, The News and Humaira Sharif of APP (Resource persons). Working Group: Ayesha Habib (Dunya TV); Sehrish Majid (Apna TV), Anila Bashir- (Samaa), Asma Ghani (The Nation), Maimoona (Khabrain), Siddrah Bokhari (APP), Naheed Akhtar (APP), Shumaila Noreen (APP), Zahida Mahmood (APP), Ghazala Noreen (News-One TV), Saadia Masood (Rohi TV), Nazia Hameed (Channel 5), Afshan Qureshi (Ausaf), Rukhsana Mussarat (Radio Pakistan), Shazia Seher (Apna TV). The WJP Advisory Board comprises the following: Qatrina Hussain (Anchorperson, Express TV); Absar Alam (Anchorperson Aaj TV); Ghazi Salahuddin (Member Editorial Board, Jang Group of Newspapers); Javed Akhtar (Director News, APP); Muhammad Ziauddin (Executive Editor, The Express Tribune); Shamsul Islam Naz (Secretary General, Pakistan Federal Union of Journalists); Asma Shirazi (Anchorperson Samaa TV); Mazhar Arif (Executive Director, Alternate Media) and Fozia Shahid (ATV). Establishment of Aasha (the Alliance Against Sexual Harrasment) and a code of conduct for workplace WWO is among the civil society organisations which got together a few years ago to form Aasha, the Alliance Against Sexual Harassment (www.aasha.org.pk) in collaboration with the International Labor Organisation (ILO) and Pakistans Ministry of Women Development. Aasha developed a code of conduct for the workplace and a procedure to deal with harassment and discrimination. Geo TV, the largest private television network in Pakistan is among the few media organisations Aasha lists as a progressive employer. Its not necessary for every case to be a federal issue, commented a television producer who worked with Geo when Aasha started. Often the tension arises because of the widespread gender segregation in our society many of these youngsters dont know how to interact with each other. This leads to misunderstandings that the code helps to clear up. Another reason for growing sexual harassment may be that, with education, more people are crossing class barriers. Women coming into journalism earlier were relatively well-connected and self-confident. Many now come from lower-middle class backgrounds and have less confidence. Men find it easier to take advantage of or intimidate them, observed a senior journalist. Problems Faced by Female Journalists (Pakistan) It is an established fact that women are an integral part of the Pakistani media. Professionally, they match their male colleagues and their analytical and investigative skills are quite impressive. With their distinctive approach to political, economic and social issues, women journalists have successfully highlighted the human angle that had previously remained neglected. They have proven themselves, both in the print and the electronic media. Less than a decade ago, there were very few women in journalism. But things have now changed and with the opening of a string of television channels, many new faces have joined in. These motivated girls have been a valuable addition to the Pakistani media. Viewers, readers and listeners, have all appreciated their work. However, unfortunately the working conditions in the media houses have remained unchanged. Low salaries, downsizing, lack of professionalism, non-existence of basic facilities for employees like health, old age benefits etc, no job security and non-conducive work environment in majority of media organizations especially in the Urdu print media are indeed big hurdles. This has greatly affected women journalists because they are often the first ones to become victims of downsizing. Mainly due to social pressures, they cannot work in two or three places like their male colleagues and unlike their male colleagues women are reluctant to seek favors. The constraints they face due to overall environment in media industry become a hurdle in their way to assume journalism as a career but another dimension of this issue is the problems female journalists face within their community the biggest is their continuing struggle to become registered journalists within media bodies. Unfortunately, majority of the women journalists have only been granted associate membership which is actually not regular membership. The condition is worst in under developed areas where women, in most of cases, dont apply for membership. This apparently small problem has long lasting effect on the overall situation of female journalists and their growth in media industry. Due to non-registratio